Introduction and Perspectives on Training Essay

Introduction and Perspectives on Training - Essay Example From this discussion it is clear that  organisations employ training for operational and strategic issues consequent to internal and external changes. Organizations train their employees for skill enhancement, knowledge acquisition, honing of abilities for increase of performance in the work settings.   The success of the training programme does not guarantee that training would be successfully transferred to the workplace. Trainability, the ability to learn and apply training material imbibed during the training programme at the workplace, is a function of ability, motivation and environmental favourability.   Along with interest in training has arisen an increased interest in learning technologies and performance enhancement processes practices and services). The study of transfer of training has evolved from notions of ‘shared elements’ to ‘cognitive interpretations’ of transfer.  Ã‚   Transfer of training construct is used to describe those aspec ts of the work environment that directly influence the generalisation and maintenance of knowledge and skills learned during training . This discussion highlights that  in a survey of 150 organizations, less than 50 percent of employees transferred only one half of their newly acquired skills six months after the transfer. On the other hand, the importance of transfer climate can be gauged from the fact 50 percent of all the   performance improvement resulting from training intervention, may be attributed to those post-training activities, which support the transfer process.

Resolving conflicts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Resolving conflicts - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that teams and groups are inherent parts of the organization, where they exist naturally. Even the formation of groups within organization occurs as part of an instinctive process that involves forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. According to social identity theory, people tend to identify themselves with a particular group, reacting in certain ways to the success or failure of that particular group. A great variety of projects are completed in groups where each individual member contributes with his or her share of knowledge and skills. Thus, groups exist as central players in the workplace. Groups contribute immensely to the corporate culture of an organization. The present research has identified that groups shape member behavior to a great extent and this has implications on efficiency. The right set of group dynamics play a vital role in determining successful execution of an objective. It is evidently clear from th e discussion that groups also turn out to be more efficient than their individual counterparts. It takes the right combination of individuals within the group to work successfully and it is common for members to face with diverse peers within a group. This paper illustrates that in order to enhance the productivity of the group, some variables such as size, cohesiveness, and group culture, can be adjusted.

Give Peace a Chance

Give Peace a Chance Give Peace a Chance John Lennon was a singer, songwriter, musician, author and peace activist who was also one of the founding members of The Beatles. He died tragically on December 8, 1980 in New York City, New York. Lennon was shot and killed by Mark David Chapman at the entrance of the Dakota apartment building where he resided. Chapman was charged with murder and received a prison sentence of twenty years to life. He has been up for parole five times, which has been denied each time. Chapman remains at Attica State Prison in New York. John Lennons assassination shocked the world. The world had lost a great musician. Born on October 9, 1940 in Liverpool, England, Lennon had taken an interest in music at an early age. At seventeen, he formed a band called The Quarrymen that eventually became The Beatles. The Beatles looked to Lennon as their group leader. As Paul McCartney, a fellow band member stated, â€Å"We all looked up to John. He was older and he was very much the leader- he was the quickest wit and the smartest and all that kind of thing† (Goldman 672).From 1957 until 1964, the Beatles toured all over Europe. The group first appeared in the United States in February 1964. After their performance on The Ed Sullivan Show, The Beatles toured nonstop for two years, holding concerts, making movies, and writing hit songs. In 1969, the group split up and John Lennon began working on his first solo album. Throughout the 1970s, Lennon produced multiple hits and he had a successful solo career. He also recorded several albums with his wife, Yoko One, a Japanese-American woman who was several years older than Lennon. He had two sons, Julian from a previous marriage and Sean with Yoko Ono. Mark David Chapman was born in 1955, the son of a military family that moved around his entire childhood. He was bullied and teased at every school he attended. â€Å"He sought refuge in an imaginary world of little people where he achieved affection and the feeling of power† (Norman, 804). In his early teen years, Chapman experimented with drugs, but he later became a devout Christian. He went on to work for several worthwhile causes that Lennon would have approved- a YMCA program for Vietnamese people and he also spent time in Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War (Norman 804). At age 22, he began having psychiatric problems and attempted suicide. In 1979, he married a Japanese-American woman several years older than himself, much like Lennon. Chapman eventually developed a series of obsessions including John Lennon and the book The Catcher in the Rye. Chapman particularly obsessed about Holden Caulfield, the main character in the book. He believed that â€Å"if he put an e nd to John Lennon, he would be able to step into the books pages and become Holden Caulfield† (Norman, 805). His main comfort in his joyless life was Beatles music. On Friday, December 5, 1980, Mark David Chapman flew from his home in Honolulu, Hawaii to New York with a backpack and fourteen hours of Beatles music on cassettes. He checked into a YMCA and bought a copy of Double Fantasy, the latest album by John Lennon. Chapman left his copy of J.D. Salingers book The Catcher in the Rye at home in Hawaii, so he purchased a new copy in New York. His plan was to shoot John Lennon at that time, but instead just took some pictures. Chapman spent most of the weekend outside the Dakota talking to the many fans that always stood around hoping to get a glimpse of Lennon, but he did not see John Lennon until Sunday. On Monday, December 8, Chapman returned to the Dakota around noon. John left his building around 4 p.m., and Chapman was planning once again to shoot Lennon. This time, Lennon autographed Chapmans Double Fantasy album, Chapman hesitated when Lennon kindly asked, â€Å"Is that all you want?† This caught Chapman off guard and he could no t go through with his current plan. Later that evening, at 10:49 p.m., Lennon returned to his home. Lennon headed to the entrance of the Dakota. Chapman walked towards Lennon and was holding his autographed copy of Double Fantasy. He softly called, â€Å"Mr. Lennon† and produced a .38 caliber handgun, firing five shots. Within minutes, police arrived at the scene and took Lennon to Roosevelt Hospital. He was pronounced dead at 11:07 p.m. Police found Chapman leaning against the bricks outside the Dakota calmly reading The Catcher and the Rye. His gun and the Double Fantasy album were on the ground nearby. The inside book cover read â€Å"This is my statement† (Jones 22). â€Å"This† was underlined, it was signed â€Å"Holden Caulfield,† and The Catcher in the Rye was written underneath. Lennon was assassinated by a man similar to himself. â€Å"Both were troubled, self-absorbed, and emotionally unfulfilled children. Each came separately of age- Lennon in the rubble of post World War II England, and Chapman in the midst of Americas decade long war in Vietnam-in a confused and hypocritical world† (Jones 2). Both sought out music, art, drugs, and religion (Jones 1). Chapman was angered by Lennons infamous remark in 1966 that The Beatles were â€Å"bigger then Jesus.† Chapmans was obsessed with the theme of phoniness from The Catcher in the Rye. It was suggested that Chapman wanted to kill Lennon because he viewed him as a phony. Chapman later said that he felt the murder would turn him into Holden Caulfield. Both John Lennon and his assassin, Mark David Chapman, have surprised and forever altered history. Ironically Lennon had given an interview on the say of his assassination where he said that he felt safe enough to walk anywhere in the city. He was a simple man who wanted only peace and love in the world. These ideals where shown in his music and songwriting. His assassination robbed the world of a talented musician.

Renaissance Art Essay -- Essays Papers Arts History Papers

Renaissance Art The term renaissance, describing the period of European history from the early 14th to the late 16th century, is derived from the French word 'rebirth'. This period is described as the revival of the classical forms originally developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and an intensified concern with the secular life--interest in humanism and assertion of the importance of the individual. The renaissance period in art history corresponds to the beginning of the great western age of discovery and exploration, when a general desire developed to examine all aspects of nature and the world. Art, during this period, became valued -- not merely as a vehicle for religious and social identity, but even more as a mode of personal, aesthetic expression. The term early renaissance characterizes virtually all the art of the 15th century. Early renaissance artist sought to create art forms consistent with the appearance of the natural world and with their experience of human personality and behavior. These artists made an effort to go beyond straightforward transcription of nature, to instill the work of art with ideal, intangible qualities, endowing it with a beauty and significance greater and more permanent than that actually found in nature. Artists such as Donatello in sculpture, Masaccio in painting and Fillipo Brunelleschi in architecture were part of this period. Masaccio for instance gave figures the ?illusion? of live beings when characters and re...

Alliant Energy Case Study

1. Who are the main players (name and position)? William D Harvey, Chairman and CEO of Alliant Energy Jamie Toledo, head of supplier diversity program- Alliant Energy 2. In what business or businesses and industry or industries is the company operating? Energy/Utility- Alliance provides electricity and natural gas service 3. What are the issues and problems facing the company?That diversity within the workforce and supplier base does not meet corporate core values and goals (to create and retain/maintain a diverse workforce/supplier base, and place women in positions not traditionally held by women, still need more ethnic diversity) in order to maximize their abilities Employees are confused about Alliant’s definition of diversity Employees’ perception of diversity (affirmative action, work attitudes, job satisfaction) 4. What is the primary problem for the company/organization in this case?That diversity within the workforce and supplier base does not meet corporate co re values and goals 5. Why have the problem (s) you cite emerged? Identify the causal chain (the events or Circumstances that caused the problem-Some will be Internal Weaknesses, others EXTERNAL Threats). Employees’ perception of diversity (affirmative action, work attitudes, job satisfaction— external threat, people come to the workplace with preconceived notions regarding diversity.Employees confused about definition of diversity- Internal cause by lack of training and lack of understanding regarding management’s expectations 6. What are the characteristics of the industry that the company is in and how is the Industry changing over time? Not typically an industry that includes many women, and is not located in an area of the United States that is particularly diverse. Industry is continuously growing as the need for energy increases, thus more people will need to be hired and more suppliers will be needed. The marketplace is full of many different ages, races , and religions.An organization with employees that reflect these different groups will be more successful in serving consumers because their workforce reflects the diversity of the marketplace 7. What is the firm's strategy for differentiation, enabling them to compete within the context of their industry? According to Jamie Toledo, having diverse suppliers leads to new perspectives and creativity, it supports local communities, and ensures diverse businesses have fair opportunities. In addition, having a diverse workforce enables the company to understand the marketplace and increases the company’s chances of succeeding . What are possible solutions to the problems you have identified? Continue to communicate senor managements’ commitment to diversity, explain the benefits of diversity, active participation of employees in the training, create an internal diversity council 9. What are the advantages and possible disadvantages of your solution(s)? Advantage: more trai ning and more continued reinforcement typically leads to more involvement and awareness, employees now know the definition and of and benefits of diversity at it applies to their jobs and company.Possible disadvantage: the scripted training may reinforce stereotypes. All day, mandated training may lead to some employees not grasping all the elements of the training 10. Are there any possible problems with your suggested recommendations? What contingencies need to be accommodated? Training may be too scripted, not enough employee involvement†¦. Solution= include more informal forums or guest speakers. Could also spread the scripted training over the course of multiple days.

Environmental Impact of Textile Production – Handloom Production Is the Answer

D. Narasimha Reddy 1/11 Environmental Impact of Mechanised and Automated Textile Production Introduction The contribution of mechanised and automated manufacturing to various environmental impacts is enormous. Environmental impacts from manufacturing industries can be seen such areas as toxic chemicals, waste, energy, and carbon emissions. Manufacturing in developed countries is also a heavy user of water, and there have been many cases of air, water and soil contamination which have led to such actions as cleanups, class actions suits and a variety of other corporate liabilities. Environmental impact can be seen in all phases of textile production and use, from growing or making fibres to discarding a product after its useful life has ended. The physical environment is affected by these processes, including resource depletion, pollution and energy use; the biological environment, by considering what happens as a result of manufacture, and the social environment as it impinges on our psychological, physical and physiological comfort, as well as our financial well-being. In recent years, textile industry in developed countries has been facing severe problems, the most serious of which are those connected with pollution. In fact, governments have been bringing up environmental laws which strictly prohibit wastewater discharge in rivers and lakes. This situation indeed burdens the textile industries and also leads to increase in production costs. Textile Industry and Process Description The textile industry includes multiple processes and activities. The four major textile operations are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Yarn Formation: preparing and spinning raw materials (natural and synthetic); texturizing man-made filament fibers. Fabric Formation: warping and slashing yarn; performing weaving and knitting operations. Wet Processing: preparing the fabric for dyeing and finishing; dyeing, printing, and finishing operations. Product Fabrication: cutting and sewing the fabric, performing final finishing operations. In the yarn formation process, fibers are bound using spinning operations, grouping, and twisting. Staple fibers, natural and man-made, are prepared for spinning through a combination of various processing steps such as blending, drawing, carding, opening, combing, and roving. Following drying operations, yarn may then be woven into fabric. From the spun or filament yarn, fabric is formed by knitting or weaving operations. Yarn e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 2/11 can be processed directly through knitting operations but typically requires preparation for weaving operations. Preparation for weaving includes warping and slashing (sizing). Wet processing enhances appearance, durability, and serviceability of the fabric. Chemical Pollution Textile production involves a number of wet processes that may use solvents. Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) mainly arise from textiles finishing, drying processes, and solvent use. VOC concentrations vary from 10 milligrams of carbon per cubic meter (mg/m3) for the thermosol process to 350 mg carbon/m3 for drying and condensation process. Waste water from processes is a major source of pollutants. It is typically alkaline and has high BOD5 (700 to 2,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L)) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (approximately 2 to 5 times the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) level), solids, oil and possibly toxic organics, including phenols (from dyeing and finishing) and halogenated organics (from processes such as bleaching). Dye effluents are frequently highly colored and may contain heavy metals such as copper and chromium. Pesticides used on natural fibers are transferred to effluents during washing and scouring operations. Pesticides are also used for moth proofing, brominated flame retardants for synthetic fabrics, and isocyanates for lamination. Effluents might include pesticides (such as DDT and PCP), and metals (such as mercury, arsenic, and copper). Air emissions include dust, oil mists, acid vapors, odors, and boiler exhausts. Cleaning and production changes result in sludges from tanks and spent process chemicals, which may contain toxic organics and metals. Table 1: Chemicals and Chemical Categories Commonly Encountered in Textile Manufacturing Process Chemicals and Chemical Categories Dyeing/Printing Ethylene glycol, ertain glycol ethers, methanol, copper compounds, chromium compounds Desizing Certain glycol ethers Sizing Methanol Scouring Biphenyl, xylene, certain glycol ethers Chemical Finishing Certain glycol ethers, methyl ethyl ketone, formaldehyde Coating Operations Dichloromethane, methanol, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene Article/Formulation Chromium compounds, copper compounds, methanol, Components antimony compounds Manufacturing/Processing Ethylene glycol, methanol, phenol, toluene, xylene, Aids biphenyl Reactants Diisocyanates, formaldehyde, methanol, phenol Source: Emergency Planning and Community Right- To-Know Act Section 313 Reporting Guidance for the Textile Processing Industry, US Environmental Protection Agency, May, 2000 Chemicals are used for the removal of impurities from the fiber and for machine maintenance. Man-made filament fibers may be manufactured using chemicals. e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 3/11 Processing of these fibers, known as texturizing, can result in the removal and subsequent release and other waste management activities of chemicals from the fiber. Oils, lubricants, machine maintenance chemicals, and waste yarn and material are also released. Chemical sizing agents are added to the yarn by solution or pad/dry techniques and other chemical additives may be added to increase yarn softness and pliability. Chemicals are also used during fabric formation as fabric processing agents and equipment cleaning and maintenance chemicals. Fabric processing agents include sizing agents and performance enhancing chemicals such as certain glycol ethers, ethylene glycol, and methanol. These chemicals typically volatilize or are washed off during fabric formation. However, some may remain with the fabric throughout the fabric formation process and into the wet processing and finishing operations. Both fugitive and point source air emissions containing chemicals typically occur during the slashing (sizing) operation or during fabric drying operations. This includes chemicals used as sizing agents or performance enhancing chemicals. Dust air emissions may also be generated during fabric formation. Effluents are generated from fabric cleaning and slashing operations; used oil, lubricants, and other machine maintenance chemicals; and equipment cleaning operations. Solid waste is also released from fabric formation. The primary source of solid waste is excess fabric material and scraps that may contain chemicals not volatilized or removed during fabric formation or chemicals brought on-site with the raw material (e. g. , antimony oxide used as a fire resistant). Dust containing chemicals is also generated during knitting or weaving operations, which when collected by air pollution control devices or by floor sweepings is a significant solid waste. During slashing operations, residue left in sizing agent or other chemical agent containers may be a source of chemicals. Fugitive emissions are most likely to result from slashing and drying operations when chemicals, such as methanol, evaporate. In wet processing, chemical agents, such as dyes, pigments, strength agents, and flame resistors are applied through a water-intensive process. Synthetic materials may be desized and scoured prior to dyeing or printing. After preparation for wet processing, dyeing or printing can occur, followed by rinsing, drying, or heat setting. Printing operations typically do not use water. The final wet processing step is mechanical and chemical finishing; these operations are used to improve appearance, texture, and performance of the fabric. Dye application includes various dye types and methods. Dyes can be fixed to the textile chemically and/or physically. Dyes may be bonded to the fabric or precipitated by removal of a dye solubilizing agent. Color can be affixed through the use of pigments, solvents, and resin binders. For the textile industry, wet processing operations are significant sources of chemical release. Typical chemicals include ammonia, certain glycol ethers, and methyl ethyl ketone. Alkaline or solvent solutions are used during scouring. Solvents, although used in the past, are being replaced with aqueous chemicals. Bleaching agents and other chemical e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 4/11 additives are used during bleaching operations, however, these are usually not chemicals. Acids are used for neutralizing remaining caustic soda during mercerizing operations. During dyeing or printing operations, chemicals such as solubilizing agents, dye carriers, salts, and fixing agents may be employed to speed the process or enhance the process effects. Chemicals used during finishing operations include optical brighteners, softeners, and flame resistant chemicals. Effluents are generated from spent process baths, solutions, and rinses. Process effluents include spent sizing solutions, scouring and dyeing baths, cleaning rinses, dyeing rinses, textile cleaning water, and mercerizing operations. Chemicals in textile effluents include dyes, pigments, and salts. Salts present in process effluents may be either raw materials (e. g. , metal compound salts) or byproducts from neutralization or other chemical reactions (e. g. , nitrate compounds). Metal compounds such as copper compounds and chromium compounds are also commonly present. Other sources include equipment cleaning wastewater, container cleaning wastewater, and used lubricants and other machine operating aids. Cleaning solvents may become part of the wastewater after scouring operations and equipment cleaning. The US EPA has estimated that there are approximately 135 major source facilities, in US, in the printing, coating, and dyeing of fabrics and other textiles source category. The principal hazardous air pollutants emitted by these sources include toluene, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), methanol, xylenes, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), methylene chloride, trichloroethylene, n- hexane, glycol ethers (ethylene glycol), and formaldehyde. Exposure to these substances has been demonstrated to cause adverse health effects such as irritation of the eye, lung, and mucous membranes, effects on the central nervous system, and damage to the liver. The EPA has classified two of the hazardous air pollutants, methylene chloride and trichloroethylene, as probable or possible human carcinogens. Dyeing The art of textile dyeing dates back thousands of years, when dyes extracted from plants or sea snails were used to color cloth. Today, most dyes are synthetically manufactured, yet only 40-90% actually resides on the cloth. The residual dye is treated and discharged into our rivers and streams. World wide, it is estimated that this accounts for over 400,000 tons of dye per year. Colorfastness is a textile industry standard that determines how stable the color is in a garment. Good colorfastness means the garment won’t fade after one washing. Resin pretreatment is done for garments that require excellent colorfastness. Cationic fixatives could be used for outerwear garments where colorfastness to washing is moderate but colorfastness to dry cleaning is high. Poor shade repeats are a major cause of economic loss and pollution in dyeing operations. An average dye worker makes 300 weighings per day. Sources of error are many, e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 5/11 including sorption of moisture from the atmosphere which way amout to up to a maximum of 20% error in dye weight. Other factors such as water quality, fiber variations, and the like also contribute to reworks and off quality. There needs to be a balance between improved productivity in dyeing, and the need to minimize water, energy, and effluent discharge in the textile industry. There is a need to regulate usage of dyes in improving shades on textiles while optimizing water, dye and energy utilization. Under most circumstances, a mixture of dyes is utilised to achieve the desired shade. This means that a small number of dyes can be used to achieve an infinite number of colours, but also means that achieving the exact shade desired requires some skill and can often entail redyeing with a shading addition to correct the shade. In extreme cases, the cloth can be stripped of colour and completely redyed, but this is an environmental and commercial last resort. One of the root causes of problems in achieving the required shade is that if dyes in a mixture have different dyeing profiles the shade and depth of dyeing may change with time and the timing of the dyeing process is therefore crucial. Thus, the difficulty associated with reliable attainment of shade and depth provides a hidden cost in production through reduced capacity and proportionately increases the environmental impact of reactive dyeing through the extra water, chemicals, energy and time needed to make a shading addition. Dyes and auxiliary chemicals used in textile mills are developed to be resistant to environmental influences. As a result, they are hard to remove from wastewater generated during the dyeing processes. In India, the detrimental nature of the synthetic dye industry has been recognised. The Central Pollution Control Board of India has included it in its â€Å"hyper-red† category reserved for the seventeen most polluting industries in the country. The true costs of synthetic dye production and application have never, to our knowledge, been assessed. According to the Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board, an estimated 80. 70 million litres of effluent water is discharged daily into the Noyy al River from dyeing and bleaching units in Tirupur. 2 Water Consumption Water is used extensively throughout textile processing operations. Textile operations vary greatly in water consumption. Water use can vary widely between similar operations as well. Almost all dyes, specialty chemicals, and finishing chemicals are applied to textile substrates from water baths. In addition, most fabric preparation steps, including desizing, scouring, bleaching, and mercerizing, use aqueous systems. The amount of http://www. undp. org. in/Programme/Environment/natdye/dyejust. tm Zero Discharge – Treatment Options for Textile Dye Effluent: A Case Study at Manickapurampudur Common Effluent Treatment Plant, Tirupur, Tamil Nadu, S. Eswaramoorthi, K. Dhanapal1 and J. Karpagam EPIC in India, No. 33, Anugraha Gardens, Central Studio Road, Trichy Main Road, Singanallur, Coimbatore-641005, India, 2004. 2 1 e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 6/11 water used varies widely in the industry, depending on specific processes operated at the mill, equipment used, and prevailing management philosophy concerning water use. The various stages of textile production (from spinning, weaving and knitting, to dyeing and finishing) require enormous energy and water use. For example, 26. 5 gallons of water are needed to process 2. 2 pounds of textiles. Reducing water consumption in textile processing is important, due in part because excess water use dilutes pollutants and adds to the effluent load. Table 2: Water Use in Textile Processing Processing Water Use Water Use Subcategory Minimum, Median, gal/lb gal/lb of production of production Wool 13. 3 34. 1 Woven 0. 6 13. 6 Knit 2. 4 10. 0 Carpet 1. 0 5. 6 Stock/Yarn 0. 4 12. 0 Nonwoven 0. 3 4. 8 Felted Fabrics 4. 0 25. 5 Water Use Maximum, gal/ lb of production 78. 9 60. 9 45. 2 19. 5 66. 9 9. 9 111. 8 Different types of processing machinery use different amounts of water, particularly in relation to the bath ratio in dyeing processes (the ratio of the mass of water in an exhaust dyebath to the mass of fabric). Washing fabric consumes greater quantities of water than dyeing. Water consumption of a batch processing machine depends on its bath ratio and also on mechanical factors such as agitation, mixing, bath and fabric turnover rate (called contact), turbulence and other mechanical considerations, as well as physical flow characteristics involved in washing operations. These factors all affect washing efficiency. In general, heating, wash, and dyebaths constitute the major portion of energy consumed in dyeing. Washing and rinsing operations are two of the most common operations in textile manufacturing that involve significant water consumption. Many processes involve washing and rinsing stages. To grow the fiber for one cotton diaper requires 105. 3 gallons of water, one T-shirt needs 256. 6 gallons of water, one bath towel needs 401. 4 gallons of water, a man's dress shirt requires 414. 5 gallons of water, and 987 gallons of water are required for one pair of jeans. An average integrated textile mill produces 15 tons of finished cloth per day. It uses a total of approximately 3,840 cubic meters of water per day, including 1,680 cubic meters for finishing and processing, another 960 cubic meters for steam generation, and an 3 Source: Sustainable Planet: Solutions for the 21st Century, â€Å"Cleaning the Closet: Toward a New Fashion Ethic,† Juliet Schor, November 2002; http://www2. bc. edu 4 California Cotton Ginners and Growers Associations, Cotton Facts, http://www. ccgga. org e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 7/11 equivalent volume for serving the workers colony and other domestic uses of water. The water used for finishing and processing results in contaminated liquid effluent of approximately 1,500 cubic meters per day. 5 In Tirupur, annually the textile industries alone utilize around 28. 8 billion litres of ground water. 6 An estimated 70 percent of textile effluents and 20 percent of dyestuffs are still dumped into water supplies by global factories. Energy Consumption Textile manufacturers use energy as a raw material input to the manufacturing process or for some other purpose usually referred to as non-fuel use. Electricity consumption is increasing in textile mills. Textile manufacturers have to deal with rising energy supply costs. Dow Chemical Co. nd DuPont both recently announced they're raising prices on nearly everything they sell, from chemicals used in bathroom cleaners to freezer bags and kitchen counter tops, because of high raw materials costs. Testifying before Congress in October, 2005, Dow CEO Andrew Liveris said high prices for natural gas that Dow and other companies use for both fuel and raw materials have rendered â€Å"the entire U. S. chemical industry uncompetitive†. â€Å"We simply cannot compete with the rest of the world at these prices,† Liveris said, adding that Dow is shifting some work overseas. â€Å"It undermines all U. S. manufacturing, because we supply all of U. S. manufacturing. † Raw materials and energy account for 50 percent of Dow's costs today, Liveris said. Energy costs were also a factor in layoffs at a Hanes Dye and Finishing plant in WinstonSalem and a Klaussner Furniture plant in Robbins, in Moore County in US. â€Å"China was the big reason, but energy costs make it difficult to compete in the global market,† said Mike Vaughan, vice president of operations and general manager for Hanes. Vaughan said the company uses a significant amount of natural gas to operate the machinery at its facilities. In the past three years, he said, the costs have tripled. 7 In Indian textile industry, energy accounts for an estimated 12%-15% of total cost of production. It was estimated that the energy saving potential is as high as 23%. 8 The Textiles Committee has taken up a programme to help processing units in Tirupur reduce their energy costs. Committee sources told The Hindu9 that three small-scale dyeing units, that were members of the Mannarai Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP), had been selected for this purpose. The project has three phases. This project Pakistan: Environmental Impact of Cotton Production and Trade, Tariq Banuri, Copyright  © 1999 International Institute for Sustainable Development, Canada 6 Ibid 2 7 http://www. newsobserver. com/102/story/374287. html, 16th March, 2006 8 http://www. renewingindia. org 9 The Hindu, 22nd January, 2004 e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com 5 D. Narasimha Reddy 8/11 was taken up in association with the School of Energy of the PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, under the cluster development programme of the committee. Sources explained that power, steam and water consumed by these units for processing one kg of fabric were estimated. During the first phase, energy auditing had been carried out in the three units. The energy consumption and the actual requirement were estimated in each of the participating units. Under the second phase, the areas that required â€Å"corrective action† were identified. Measures that had to be taken by the units and the cost implications were also recommended to them. Growth in artificial fibre over natural fibre Fibres are transformed into yarn through spinning for natural and blended yarns or drawing and texturising for synthetic filament yarn production. Yarn is weaved into cloth. The process of fabric formation or weaving comprises preparatory activities followed by actual weaving on the loom. The preparatory process includes winding, warping, sizing, drawing-in and denting. The sheets of yarn thus prepared are then converted into fabric on the looms. This weaved cloth or fabric is stitched into garments or sold in other forms of finished textiles. These stages of manufacture have various levels of automation possible as an improvement from the basic process. Textile fibres are predominantly of two types – natural and manmade (see figure ‘Basic Threads’). Based on the source, natural fibres, in turn, can be those derived from animals, vegetables or minerals. On the other hand, manmade fibres are produced in the fibre form by application of mainly chemical processes on the naturally occurring substances (like hydrocarbons). The textile industry uses vegetable fibers such as cotton, animal fibers — such as wool and silk, and a wide range of synthetic materials such as nylon, polyester, and acrylics. The production of natural fibers is approximately equal in amount to the production of synthetic fibers. Polyester accounts for about 50% of synthetics. Manmade fibres fall in two categories – synthetics and cellulosics. Synthetic fibres are primarily made from petrochemicals whereas cellulosics are mainly regenerated wood pulp with chemical and physical treating. These fibres can be either long, highly strong yarn called filament yarn (which is oriented and fully drawn and is straight) or in staple form (much smaller in length and crimpy like natural fibres). Filament yarns are woven or knitted as they are. They are also woven into fabrics of textured yarn by combining with other types of filament yarns, twisting yarns and texturing in accordance with the aim of the product. The filament yarns are processed into circular, triangular, oval, hollow and other cross-sections that have even better properties. The staple fibres can be easily blended with other types of fibres. They are woven into fabrics by blending with cotton, wool and linen fibres to suit the aim of the product. e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 9/11 The principal manmade fibres include polyester, nylon, acrylic and viscose. Chemically, polyester (or many esters) is primarily a family of polymers wherein the monomers belong to the category â€Å"esters†. The most commonly used polyester is the polymer of diglycol terephthalate and is called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Nylon is a group of polymers, which can be classified as polyamides. Today several types of nylon are produced with properties tuned to meet customer specifications. The most commonly used ones are nylon-6 (which is manufactured from caprolactam) and nylon66 (made from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine). The special characteristics of manmade fibres combined with availability and cost factors have seen an enormous increase in their use in the global textile industry. Fibres consumption (and consumption of related goods) has been growing at an astonishing rate. Consumption per capita of fibres has been growing steadily passing from 3. 7 kilos in 1950 to 9 kilos in 2002. The growth of manmade fibres in the textile industry has been phenomenal. Production of artificial fibres outnumbers natural fibres since the beginning of the 1990s. In 2002, natural fibres production was at 22. 5 million tons against 33. 6 for man made fibres. Table 3: World fibre production/Consumption per capita10 Year Natural Manmade TOTAL Population Consumption * ‘000 billion** kg / capita tons 2002 22. 463 33. 657 56. 120 6,23 9,0 2000 21. 504 31. 147 52. 651 6,08 8,7 1990 21. 460 19. 380 40. 840 5,28 7,7 1980 15. 227 14. 301 29. 528 4,46 6,6 1970 13. 484 8. 394 21. 878 3,71 5,9 1960 11. 607 3. 367 14. 974 3,04 4,9 1950 7. 723 1. 681 9. 404 2,56 3,7 * Ramie, flax, hemp, jute, sisal and coir (fibre prepared from the husk of the coconut) not included. * World population Comparing the domestic consumption patterns of fibres in India and China, two of the largest textile players on the global market, the imbalance is evident. In India, the textile industry covers a wide range of economic activities and has a significant role in the economy of the c ountry. In 2003, it was growing at the annual rate of 5%. In the meanwhile, the per capita consumption of textile fibre in India is one of the lowest (2. 5 kg) in the world. In China, the consumption of textiles is booming. Synthetic fibre yarns are in the top fifty import commodities. In 2003 China imported 710,000 tons of cotton yarn and almost all Source: 2003/feb/25bud20. htm 10 www. indo-rama. net/FiberYear2002. pdf; www. rediff. com/money/ e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 10/11 luxury yarns and fibres are imported. During the same year, China's quantity per capita of processed chemical fibre reached 10 kg, much higher than the world's average. China's textile sector is predicted to achieve a 6. 0% growth to take its total fibre consumption to 14. 0 million tonnes by 2005 and its per capita fibre consumption from the 2001 level of 6. 0 kg to 8. 0 kg. In India, as yet there is no effort to quantify the overall environment impact of wet processing of ma n-made fibers, especially with respect to chemical components, processing formulations and the effluent produced from the process. It is known that pretreatment of cellulosic textiles is characterized by high consumption of chemicals, water, and energy along with great discharge of waster water. This is mainly due to carrying out pretreatment operations on separate steps with repeated washing operations after each step. Conclusion Clothes and other textiles can affect the environment to varying degrees throughout their life cycles. Before textiles reach the consumer, they have gone through many different chemical processes. They may be treated with chemicals to dye them, make them more hardwearing or wrinkle-resistant, or less flammable. Some of these chemicals are carcinogenic or may cause harm to children even before birth. Others may trigger allergic reactions in some people. Some flame retardants that are used in certain textiles contain organic bromine compounds that are persistent (break down very slowly in the environment). The use of some dangerous chemicals in textiles is restricted such as azo dyes and formaldehyde. All textiles processes have an impact on the environment. The industry uses large amounts of natural resources such as water, while many operations use chemicals and solvents. All companies use energy, produce solid waste, discharge effluent and emit dust, fumes, etc to the atmosphere. Many textiles companies are located in rural areas where environmental protection assumes significance. While companies in developed countries are faced with increasingly stringent legislative controls and rising water and other raw material costs, their competitors in developing countries are getting away by externalising the environmental costs. Efficient and effective use of raw materials and improved process operations are vital for Western companies to remain competitive. Pressure is also being exerted by suppliers and customers on such companies to reduce their environmental impact. Environmental aspects in the textile industry are typically addressed at the corporate level, and the environmental costs are viewed as corporate overhead, but in general not discussed at the national level. A more efficient compliance with proper environmental guidelines is required for significant cost reduction on environment. e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com D. Narasimha Reddy 11/11 Environmental issues can no longer be ignored by the textiles industry and the government. Indian textile industry should realize that to remain competitive operating costs have to be reduced and environmental compliance has to be increased. Government should also integrate environmental goals into the national textile policy, and cannot have independent growth strategies, as environmental costs are proving to be a drag on growth and development. The textile industry in Tirupur was expected to grow to achieve the targetted textile product export of US$ 50 Billion by the year 2010. But, such growth is now greatly hampered due to immense environmental damage caused to the Noyyal river, ground water system, and agricultural production, by the textile wet processing industries in Tirupur. 11 All these factors mean that environmental issues should be an essential part of textile growth policies. For Indian textile sector, the main drivers for environmentally benign growth can be: †¢ Growth of handloom sector †¢ Competition †¢ Pressure exerted down the supply chain by the consumer †¢ Reducing production costs †¢ Meeting current and anticipated legislative requirements †¢ Concern for the global and local environment In India, a comprehensive approach has not been undertaken before on environmental impacts of textile manufacturing and has never previously been associated with textile production and use. A comprehensive analysis of the environmental impact of textile manufacturing activity should be done, which includes an analysis of the degradation by air pollution, wind, water and other agents. A complete survey of how developments in the textile industry and consumers of its products have affected the environment in the past needs to be taken up. This should also cover the most recent solutions adopted by the industry to alleviate the problems. This is important given the high textile production targets post 2005, and the ways in which the industry is responding to the environmental challenge. It will help the national textile policy and the growth of textile industry as well. 11 Ibid 2 e-mail: nreddy. [email  protected] com